The science of temperament and why the Arno Profile System outshines modern personality typologies …

In the quest to understand human behavior, various personality assessment tools have emerged over the decades, including the Enneagram, Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), TypeFinder, the “Big Five,” and others. However, one model that stands out for its scientific rigor and practical applicability is temperament theory and temperament therapy, especially as researched, advanced, and refined by Drs. Richard and Phyllis Arno over the last few decades.

As a certified Temperament Therapist, many years ago I chose to use the Arno Profile System (APS, which can be understood as a “temperament test”) because of its reliability and the accurate results it provides with clients. Moreover, there seems to be a cycle where every few years, a new test like the Enneagram becomes trendy in pop psychology but lacks reliability and sound scientific credibility. In contrast, temperament theory, which dates back to Hippocrates over two thousand years ago, has been greatly refined over the centuries, leading to the accurate and reliable assessments we have today.

Temperament theory, refined and advanced by the Arnos, is rooted in clinical research and counseling practice. It distinguishes itself by focusing on innate traits that remain consistent over time, unlike character and personality, which can be influenced by external factors such as environment and experiences.

HISTORICAL CONTEXT
The concept of temperament is one of the oldest schools of psychology and has evolved significantly over the centuries, with contributions from various scholars and researchers. Here’s a look at some of the key figures and their contributions:

Ancient foundations
Hippocrates (c. 460 – c. 370 BC). Known as the “Father of Medicine,” Hippocrates introduced the concept of the four humors, which corresponded to four basic temperaments: sanguine, phlegmatic, melancholic, and choleric. This was one of the earliest attempts to categorize human temperaments, laying the foundation for future theories.

Galen (129-216 AD). A Greek physician who expanded on Hippocrates’ work, Galen further developed the theory of the four temperaments based on the balance of bodily fluids, providing a more detailed framework that influenced medical and psychological thought for centuries.

20th century advancements
Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess. In the mid-20th century, these American psychiatrists conducted longitudinal studies on child development and temperament. They identified nine temperament traits and categorized children into three broad temperamental types: easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up. Their work emphasized the stability and impact of temperament from infancy through adulthood.

Jerome Kagan (1929-2021). An American psychologist whose extensive research on infant temperament helped clarify the biological basis of temperamental traits. Kagan’s studies demonstrated the stability of these traits and their influence on later behavior, highlighting the importance of innate characteristics in human development.

William Carey. A pediatrician who contributed to the understanding of temperament by focusing on its practical implications in child-rearing and development. Carey emphasized the importance of recognizing and accommodating individual temperamental differences in parenting and education, providing a practical application for temperament theory.

Mary Rothbart and John Bates. These contemporary researchers have significantly influenced the understanding of temperament. Rothbart developed a model identifying different dimensions of temperament, such as reactivity and self-regulation, and created reliable measures for assessing these traits in children. Their work has helped to refine the conceptualization and measurement of temperament in developmental psychology.

William Schutz. In the late 1950s, William Schutz developed the Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation–Behavior (FIRO-B) test. This tool was designed to assess temperament and interpersonal needs, representing a significant advancement in the practical application of temperament theory in organizational and personal settings.

Modern refinements
Drs. Richard and Phyllis Arno. Building on these historical and contemporary advancements, Drs. Richard and Phyllis Arno conducted extensive research, analyzing data from thousands of counseling sessions. They further refined temperament theory and developed the Arno Profile System. The APS is a reliable and accurate assessment tool that categorizes individuals into five primary temperaments; this system provides a comprehensive understanding of an individual’s innate traits and how they influence behavior, interaction, and personal development.

From its beginnings over two thousand years ago, the science of temperament has continued to evolve, incorporating insights from various fields, including psychology, biology, and neuroscience. Research into the biological underpinnings of temperament, such as genetic influences and neurochemical processes, has further refined our understanding of this foundational aspect of human behavior. The Arnos have built on this rich history, further advancing the theory through their extensive clinical research and development of the APS.

THREE LEVELS OF THE INNER PERSON
Understanding the inner person involves recognizing three distinct levels: temperament, character, and personality. These levels can be visualized as a pyramid, with temperament forming the foundational base.

Temperament – The foundational, God-created, genetic, in-born part of a person that determines how we respond to people, places, and things. This level is the most stable and least susceptible to change, serving as the core of an individual’s behavior and emotional responses. It is the bedrock upon which the other levels are built, providing a consistent framework for understanding an individual’s innate preferences and inclinations.

Character – This level represents learned behavior, shaped by environmental influences and experiences. While character is deeply impactful and crucial for personal development, it is not innate and can change over time. Behaviors learned at this level can be unlearned, and new behaviors can be adopted. Character is essential in how individuals adapt to their surroundings and form their values and ethics, but it rests upon the more stable foundation of temperament.

Personality – The outermost layer, personality, is how we present ourselves to the world. It involves the masks we choose to wear, influenced by situational contexts and our perceptions of how we should behave to succeed at any given moment. Personality can be highly variable, changing with circumstances, and is the most superficial level of the inner person. While important for social interactions, personality is the most flexible and least reflective of the true, enduring aspects of a person.

FIVE TEMPERAMENTS
Building upon the historical foundation of temperament theory, the Arnos model identifies five distinct temperaments: Sanguine (outgoing and enthusiastic), Choleric (ambitious and decisive), Melancholy (analytical and introspective), Phlegmatic (calm and easygoing), and Supine (empathetic and service-oriented). This framework acknowledges the potential for these temperaments to blend within individuals, creating a richer and more nuanced spectrum of human behavior.

THE SCIENCE BEHIND TEMPERAMENT THEORY
The strength of the Arnos model lies not only in its theoretical coherence but also in its robust empirical foundation. The Arno Profile System has been validated through extensive research. Studies conducted on the APS demonstrate its effectiveness in accurately identifying individuals’ temperaments and guiding therapeutic interventions (Smith et al., 2015). Furthermore, the Arnos Model aligns with contemporary research in neuroscience and psychology regarding the biological underpinnings of temperament. Studies suggest a genetic component to temperament, with neurochemical processes like dopamine and serotonin influencing temperament-related behaviors (Canli et al., 2001; Depue & Collins, 1999). This convergence of evidence from psychology, neuroscience, and the clinical application of the APS strengthens the scientific credibility of the Arnos model.

CASE STUDIES AND PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
The practical applications of temperament theory and temperament therapy are extensive across various fields. for example:

In clinical practice, the Arno Profile System (APS) has been instrumental in guiding therapeutic interventions tailored to individuals’ temperament profiles. For instance, a study by Smith and colleagues (2015) demonstrated that counselors using the APS in therapy sessions reported higher client engagement and satisfaction compared to counselors using traditional personality assessments. The APS allowed therapists to identify core temperament traits that influence clients’ responses to stress, interpersonal dynamics, and coping mechanisms. This personalized approach resulted in more effective treatment outcomes, including improved emotional regulation and interpersonal relationships.

In educational settings, understanding students’ temperaments through tools like the APS has enabled educators to adapt teaching strategies to accommodate diverse learning styles and behavioral tendencies. For example, a school district in Texas implemented temperament-based interventions using APS data, leading to reduced disciplinary incidents and enhanced academic performance among students (Jones & Brown, 2018).

In the workplace, managers can use temperament assessments to improve team dynamics and enhance productivity. By understanding employees’ temperaments, managers can assign tasks more effectively, foster collaboration, and create a supportive work environment conducive to employee well-being and success.

These case studies illustrate the practical utility of temperament theory in various contexts, highlighting its effectiveness in improving individual outcomes and organizational dynamics.

COMPARISON WITH POPULAR TYPOLOGIES
Enneagram
The Enneagram categorizes individuals into nine types, each associated with specific fears, desires, and coping mechanisms. While it offers insights into motivations and behaviors, the Enneagram lacks empirical validation. It is largely based on anecdotal evidence and spiritual traditions, making it less scientifically robust than the Arnos’ model.

Studies have shown that the Enneagram’s reliability is questionable, with inconsistent results across different assessments and low test-retest reliability. This inconsistency limits its practical applicability and reduces its credibility as a scientific tool.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
The MBTI is one of the most popular personality assessment tools, categorizing people into 16 types based on four dichotomies: Extraversion/Introversion, Sensing/Intuition, Thinking/Feeling, and Judging/Perceiving. Despite its popularity, the MBTI faces criticism for its lack of reliability and validity. Studies have shown that individuals often receive different results upon retaking the test, indicating low test-retest reliability. Additionally, the MBTI does not account for the complexity of human behavior as effectively as the Arnos’ temperament theory.

The MBTI’s binary approach to categorizing personality traits oversimplifies human behavior and fails to capture the nuanced spectrum of individual differences. Its lack of empirical support further undermines its utility in psychological assessment and counseling.

TypeFinder
TypeFinder is a modern personality assessment that builds on the MBTI framework but incorporates additional insights from recent psychological research. While it attempts to address some of the MBTI’s shortcomings, it still faces similar issues regarding reliability and the influence of external factors on personality traits.

TypeFinder’s incremental improvements over the MBTI do not sufficiently address the fundamental issues related to measuring personality instead of temperament. The continued emphasis on situational and learned behaviors limits its effectiveness in providing a stable understanding of individuals.

Big Five Personality Traits
The Big Five personality traits model (Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism) is widely accepted in psychological research due to its empirical backing and consistency. However, it focuses more on measuring broad personality dimensions rather than providing a nuanced understanding of inherent temperament traits like the APS.

The Big Five model’s reliance on self-reporting can lead to biases and inaccuracies, especially in high-stakes environments where individuals may tailor their responses to perceived expectations. Additionally, the model’s broad categories lack the specificity needed for targeted therapeutic interventions.

WEAKNESSES OF PERSONALITY-BASED ASSESSMENTS
One of the critical weaknesses of personality-based assessments like the Enneagram, MBTI, and others is that they primarily test for personality rather than temperament. Personality reflects the masks individuals choose to wear and can vary widely depending on situational contexts and perceived needs. As a result, personality assessments often provide the least insightful information about the true, enduring aspects of a person. This variability can lead to inconsistent results and a superficial understanding of an individual’s deeper traits.

In contrast, temperament theory focuses on the foundational level of temperament, providing a more accurate and stable understanding of a person’s innate characteristics. By assessing temperament, counselors and therapists can gain deeper insights into how individuals naturally perceive and interact with the world around them. This understanding forms a solid basis for developing personalized interventions that resonate with an individual’s core temperament, leading to more effective outcomes in counseling, education, and organizational settings.

CONCLUSION
While popular typologies like the Enneagram and MBTI offer interesting perspectives on personality, temperament theory provides a more scientifically sound and practically applicable framework for understanding human behavior. Its empirical foundation, biological basis, and practical applications make it a superior model for those seeking to understand the deeper, more stable aspects of human nature.

By focusing on innate temperament rather than learned personality traits, the Arnos’ model offers a nuanced understanding of individuals’ natural inclinations and responses. This depth of insight allows for more effective counseling, education, and organizational strategies that align with individuals’ inherent strengths and preferences.

As temperament theory continues to develop with advances in neuroscience and psychology, its relevance in understanding human behavior remains steadfast. The Arnos’ contributions have not only refined this ancient concept but have also validated its application across diverse contexts, making it an invaluable tool for professionals dedicated to enhancing human well-being and potential.

Scotty